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Aaron Swartz – Wikipedia
Aaron Hillel Swartz (November 8, 1986 – January 11, 2013) was an American computer programmer, entrepreneur, writer, political organizer, and Internet …
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Aaron Swartz
Computer programmer and internet/political activist (1986–2013)
Aaron Hillel Swartz (November 8, 1986 – January 11, 2013) was an American computer programmer, entrepreneur, writer, political organizer, and Internet hacktivist. He was involved in the development of the RSS web feed format,[3] the Markdown publishing format,[4] the Creative Commons organization,[5] the web.py website framework,[6] and joined the social news site Reddit six at months after inception.[7] He received the title of co-founder of Reddit from Y Combinator owner Paul Graham after founding Not a Bug, Inc. (a merger of Swartz’ project Infogami and Redbrick Solutions,[8] a company founded by Alexis Ohanian and Steve Huffman to be led ). Swartz’s work also focused on civic awareness and activism.[9][10] He helped found the Progressive Change Campaign Committee in 2009 to learn more about effective online activism. In 2010, he became a research associate at Harvard University’s Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption, headed by Lawrence Lessig.[11][12] He founded the online group Demand Progress, known for its campaign against the Stop Online Piracy Act.
In 2011, Swartz was arrested by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) police on state burglary and burglary charges after connecting a computer in an unmarked and unlocked closet to the MIT network and setting it to systematically read scholarly journal articles from Download JSTOR using a guest user account issued by MIT.[13][14] Federal prosecutors, led by Carmen Ortiz, later charged him with two counts of wire fraud and 11 violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act,[15] with a maximum cumulative penalty of $1 million in fines, 35 years in prison, forfeiture, restitution and supervised release.[16] Swartz declined a plea deal under which he would have served six months in federal prison. Two days after prosecutors rejected a counteroffer from Swartz, he was found dead by suicide in his Brooklyn apartment.[18][19] In 2013, Swartz was posthumously inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame.[20]
Early life[edit]
Swartz describes the nature of the shift from centralized one-to-many systems to decentralized many-to-many topology of network communications. San Francisco, April 2007 (9:29)
Aaron Swartz was born in Highland Park, 25 miles north of Chicago, to an Ashkenazi Jewish family.[22] He was the eldest child of Susan and Robert Swartz and brother to Noah and Ben Swartz.[1][23] He was an atheist.[24] His father founded the software company Mark Williams Company. From an early age, Swartz immersed himself in the study of computers, programming, the Internet, and Internet culture.[25] He attended North Shore Country Day School, a small prep school near Chicago, through 9th grade[26] when he left high school and enrolled in courses at Lake Forest College.[27][28]
In 1999, at the age of 12, he created The Info Network, a user-generated encyclopedia website.[29] The site won the ArsDigita award, given to young people who create “useful, educational, and collaborative” non-commercial websites, and led to early recognition of Swartz’s burgeoning talent in programming.[1][30][31] At the age of 14, he became a member of the working group that wrote the RSS 1.0 Web Syndication specification. In 2005 he enrolled at Stanford University but dropped out after his freshman year.[32]
Entrepreneurship [ edit ]
During Swartz’s freshman year at Stanford, he applied to Y Combinator’s first Summer Founders Program and proposed working on a startup called Infogami, a flexible content management system used to create rich and visually interesting websites[33]. or some kind of wiki for structured data. After working on it with co-founder Simon Carstensen in the summer of 2005, Swartz chose not to return to Stanford, choosing instead to continue developing Infogami and seek funding.[33]
As part of his work on Infogami, Swartz created the web application framework web.py because he was dissatisfied with other systems available in the Python programming language. In early fall 2005, he worked with his co-founders at another up-and-coming Y-Combinator company, Reddit, to rewrite their Lisp codebase using Python and web.py. Although Infogami’s platform was abandoned after the Not a Bug acquisition, Infogami’s software was used to support the Internet Archive’s Open Library project, and the web framework web.py was used as the basis for many other projects by Swartz and many others.[6]
When Infogami failed to find further funding, the organizers of Y-Combinator proposed to merge Infogami with Reddit,[34][35] which they did in November 2005 and formed a new company, Not a Bug, dedicated to promoting both products.[34][34][] 36] As a result, Swartz earned the title of co-founder of Reddit. Although both projects struggled initially, Reddit surged in popularity in 2005–2006.
In October 2006, largely due to Reddit’s success, Not a Bug was acquired by Condé Nast Publications, owners of Wired magazine. Swartz moved his company to San Francisco to continue working on Reddit for Wired.[25] He disliked life in a corporate office and was eventually asked to resign.[38] In September 2007, he joined Infogami co-founder Simon Carstensen to found a new company, Jottit, in another attempt to develop a Markdown-driven content management system in Python.[39]
Activism [edit]
In 2008, Swartz founded Watchdog.net, “the good government site with the bite” to collect and visualize data on politicians.[40][41] That year he wrote a popular guerrilla open access manifesto.[42][43][44][45] On December 27, 2010, he filed a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to learn more about the treatment of Chelsea Manning, the alleged source for WikiLeaks.[46][47]
PACER [ edit ]
In 2008, Swartz downloaded approximately 2.7 million federal court documents stored in the PACER (Public Access to Court Electronic Records) database maintained by the Administrative Office of the United States Courts.[48]
The Huffington Post characterized his actions as follows: “Swartz downloaded public court documents from the PACER system to make them available outside of the expensive service. Documents were in fact public.”[49]
PACER charged 8 cents per page for information that Carl Malamud, founder of the nonprofit group Public.Resource.Org, claimed should be free because federal documents are not copyrighted.[50][51] The fees “were plowed back to the courts to fund technology, but the system [was] running about a $150 million budget surplus, according to court reports,” reported the New York Times.[50] PACER used technology that was “developed in the bygone days of screeching telephone modems … and placed the nation’s legal system behind a wall of money and gossip.”[50] Malamud appealed to other activists, urging them to visit one of the 17 libraries , the conductor to receive a free trial of the PACER system, download court documents and send them to him for public distribution.[50]
After reading Malamud’s call to action,[50] Swartz used a Perl computer script running on Amazon cloud servers to download the documents, using credentials associated with a Sacramento library.[48] From September 4 to September 20, 2008, she accessed documents and uploaded them to a cloud computing service.[51] He passed the documents on to Malamud’s organization.[51]
On September 29, 2008[50] the GPO suspended the free trial “pending evaluation” of the program.[50][51] Swartz’s actions were subsequently investigated by the FBI.[50][51] The case was closed after two months without charges being brought.[51] Swartz learned the details of the investigation after submitting a FOIA request to the FBI, and described their response as “the usual jumble of confusion that shows the FBI’s lack of humor.”[51] PACER still charges per page, but customers using Firefox have the option to save the documents for free public access using a plug-in called RECAP.[52]
At a memorial service for Swartz in 2013, Malamud recalled her work with PACER. They turned up millions of U.S. District Court records behind PACER’s “paywall,” he said, and found them riddled with privacy breaches, including medical records and the names of underage children and confidential whistleblowers.
We sent our findings to the chief justices of 31 district courts… They edited those documents and yelled at the attorneys who filed them… The Judiciary Conference changed their privacy rules. … [To] the bureaucrats who ran the Administrative Office of the Courts of the United States … we were thieves who stole $1.6 million of their property. So they called the FBI… [The FBI] found nothing wrong… [53]
A more detailed account of his collaboration with Swartz on the PACER project appears in an essay on Malamud’s website.[54]
In Ars Technica, Timothy Lee[55], who later used the documents obtained from Swartz as a co-creator of RECAP, wrote an insight into discrepancies in reports of how much data Swartz downloaded: “In a back-of-the-envelope calculation A few days before the offsite crawl was shut down, Swartz estimated he had received about 25 percent of the documents in PACER. The New York Times similarly reported that Swartz downloaded “an estimated 20 percent of the entire database,” but the fact that Swartz downloaded 2.7 million documents while PACER contained 500 million documents at the time, Lee concluded that Swartz downloaded less than 1 % of the database downloaded.[48]
Progressive Change Campaign Committee[edit]
To learn about effective activism, Swartz helped found the Progressive Change Campaign Committee in 2009.[56] He wrote on his blog, “I spend my days experimenting with new ways of enforcing progressive policies and electing progressive politicians.”[57] Kennedy” petition signatures to Massachusetts legislators urging them to to fulfill former Senator Ted Kennedy’s dying wish by appointing a Senator to vote for health care reform.[58]
Demand progress[ edit ]
In 2010[59] Swartz co-founded Demand Progress,[60] a political advocacy group that organizes people online to “take action by contacting Congress and other leaders, funding pressure tactics, and speaking out about civil liberties and government reform spread”. , and other problems.[61]
During the 2010–11 academic year, Swartz conducted research on political corruption as a lab fellow at Harvard University’s Edmond J. Safra Research Lab on Institutional Corruption.
Author Cory Doctorow, in his novel Homeland, “reflected on the advice of Swartz as he suggested how his protagonist could use the information now available about voters to launch a grassroots anti-establishment political campaign.”[62 ] Roman Swartz wrote: “These political hacktivist tools can be used by anyone motivated and talented enough…. Now it’s up to you to change the system. … Let me know if I can help.”[62]
Opposition to the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) [ edit ]
Swartz was involved in the campaign to prevent the passage of the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), aimed at tackling copyright infringement online, but has been criticized for making it easier for the US government to shut down websites accused of infringing are copyrighted and would impose prohibitive burdens on ISPs.[63] Following the rejection of the bill, Swartz was the keynote speaker at the F2C:Freedom to Connect 2012 event in Washington, D.C. on May 21, 2012. In his How We Stopped SOPA speech, he said:
This bill… shut down entire websites. Essentially, it prevented Americans from fully communicating with certain groups…
I called all my friends and we stayed up all night setting up a website for this new group, Demand Progress, with an online petition against this harmful law… We [got]… 300,000 signers.. .We met with the staff of members of Congress and implored them…. And then it was unanimously approved….
And then suddenly the process stopped. Senator Ron Wyden … put the law on hold.[64][65]
He added: “We won this fight because everyone made themselves the heroes of their own story. Everyone is committed to saving this crucial freedom.”[64][65] He was referring to a series of protests against the law by Numerous Websites, which the Electronic Frontier Foundation has described as the largest protest in the history of the Internets, with over 115,000 websites posting their opposition. [citation needed] Swartz also spoke on this topic at an event organized by ThoughtWorks.
Wikipedia[edit]
Swartz at the 2009 Wikipedia Meetup in Boston
Swartz has been involved with Wikipedia since August 2003 under the username AaronSw.[67] [Self-published source] In 2006 he ran unsuccessfully for the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation.[68]
In 2006, Swartz wrote an analysis of how Wikipedia articles are written and concluded that most of the content came from tens of thousands of casual contributors or “outsiders,” each of whom made few other contributions to the site while a Core group of 500 to 1,000 regular editors tended to correct spelling and other formatting errors.[69] He said, “The formatters help the contributors, not the other way around.”[69][70] His conclusions, based on analysis of the edit history of several randomly selected articles, contradicted the opinion of Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales, who believed that the core group of regular editors provided most of the content, while thousands of others contributed to formatting issues. Swartz arrived at his conclusions by counting the number of characters editors added to particular articles, while Wales counted the total number of edits.[69]
Case United States v. Aaron Swartz [ edit ]
According to state and federal authorities, in late 2010 and early 2011, within weeks, Swartz used JSTOR, a digital repository,[71] to download a large number[ii] of articles in academic journals over MIT’s computer network. Visitors to MIT’s “open campus” were eligible to access JSTOR through its network;[72] Swartz also had a JSTOR account as a research fellow at Harvard University.[15]
The download[edit]
On September 25, 2010, the IP address 18.55.6.215, part of the MIT network, began sending hundreds of PDF download requests per minute to the JSTOR website, which was enough to slow down the website’s performance.[73 ] This resulted in the IP address being blocked. In the morning, another IP address, also from the MIT network, started sending more PDF download requests, resulting in a temporary firewall-level blockage of all MIT servers in the entire 18.0.0.0/8 range. A JSTOR employee wrote an email to MIT on September 29, 2010:
Note that this was an extreme case. We typically block only a single IP at a time and do so relatively infrequently (maybe 6 on a busy day, out of 7000+ institutional subscribers). In this case we saw a hit performance on the live site that I’ve only seen about 3 or 4 times in my 5 years here. The pattern used was to create a new session for each or every few PDF downloads, which was very efficient but not very subtle. We ended up seeing over 200,000 sessions in an hour during peak periods. NAME UNDERTAKEN, JSTOR[74]
According to the authorities, Swartz downloaded the documents using a laptop connected to a network switch in a controlled-access wiring closet at MIT.[14][15][75][76][77] According to press reports, the closet door was kept unlocked.[72][78][79] When it was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to record Swartz; his computer remained untouched. Recording stopped as soon as Swartz was identified; but instead of pursuing a civil suit against him, JSTOR reached a settlement with him in June 2011, in which he released the downloaded data.[80][81]
On July 30, 2013, JSTOR released 300 partially redacted documents used as incriminating evidence against Swartz, originally sent to the United States Attorney’s Office in response to subpoenas in the USA case against Aaron Swartz.[82]
(The images below are all excerpts from the 3,461-page PDF document.)
Root Cause Analysis report (page 1) showing a descriptive timeline of events from September 25, 2010 to December 26, 2010. [83]
Root Cause Analysis report (page 2) showing JSTOR response and incident resolution procedures. [84]
An email sent by JSTOR to Stephan, Heymann (USAMA) estimating that 3.5 million PDF files were downloaded. [85]
Email describing snapshots of PDF download activity (see next images in gallery) [86]
Describes PDF download activity from JSTOR’s databases to MIT servers between November 1st and December 27th. [87]
PDF activity, from JSTOR to MIT, between Jan 1 and 15.[88]
Arrest and prosecution[edit]
On the night of January 6, 2011, near the Harvard campus, Swartz was arrested by MIT police and a Secret Service agent and was charged in Cambridge District Court with two state charges of burglary and burglary with intent to commit a crime . 14][77][89][90]
On July 11, 2011, he was indicted by a federal grand jury on wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.
On November 17, 2011, Swartz was indicted by a Middlesex County Superior Court grand jury on state charges of intentional burglary and intrusion, gross theft and unauthorized access to a computer network. On December 16, 2011, prosecutors filed a notice dropping the two original charges,[14] and the charges listed in the November 17, 2011 indictment were dropped on March 8, 2012.[94] According to a spokesman for the Middlesex County Attorney, this was done so as not to obstruct a federal prosecutor’s office led by Stephen P. Heymann, aided by evidence presented by Secret Service agent Michael S. Pickett.
On September 12, 2012, federal prosecutors filed a replacement indictment that added nine more counts, increasing Swartz’s maximum criminal charge to 50 years in prison and a $1 million fine. During plea negotiations with Swartz’s attorneys, prosecutors offered to recommend a six-month sentence in a low-security prison if Swartz pleaded guilty to 13 federal felonies. Swartz and his lead attorney rejected the deal, instead opting for a trial where prosecutors would be forced to justify their prosecution of him.
The federal prosecutor’s office dealt with what numerous critics (including former Nixon White House counsel John Dean) called an “inflated” charge on 13 counts and an “overzealous,” “Nixonian” prosecution for alleged computer crimes brought by Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz was filed with then US Attorney.[100]
Swartz committed suicide on January 11, 2013.[101] After his death, federal prosecutors dropped the charges.[102][103] On December 4, 2013, following a Freedom of Information Act complaint by Wired magazine’s investigative editor, the Secret Service released several documents related to the case, including a video of Swartz entering the MIT network closet.[104]
Death, Burial and Commemoration Ceremonies[ edit ]
External video on YouTube, (transcript) on YouTube, (partial transcript) DC Memorial: Darrel Issa, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, on YouTube
death [edit]
On the evening of January 11, 2013, Swartz’s girlfriend, Taren Stinebrickner-Kauffman, found him dead in his Brooklyn apartment.[72][105][106] A spokeswoman for the New York Medical Examiner reported that he hanged himself.[105][106][107][108] No suicide note was found.[109] Swartz’s family and his partner created a memorial website where they issued a statement saying, “He used his amazing skills as a programmer and technologist not to enrich himself, but to make the internet and the world one.” fairer, better place.”[23]
Days before Swartz’s funeral, Lawrence Lessig praised his friend and sometime client in an essay titled “Prosecutor as Bully.” Condemning the disproportionality of Swartz’s prosecution, he said: “The question this administration must answer is why it was so necessary for Aaron Swartz to be labeled a ‘criminal.’ For in the 18 months of negotiations he was unwilling to accept it.”[110] Cory Doctorow wrote: “Aaron had an unbeatable combination of political insight, technical savvy and intelligence on people and issues. I think he could have revolutionized American (and world) politics. His legacy might yet do so.”[111]
Funeral and memorial services[edit]
Aaron Swartz memorial sign at the Internet Archive headquarters, San Francisco, January 24, 2013
Aaron Swartz Memorial Program at the Internet Archive Headquarters, San Francisco, January 24, 2013
Swartz’s funeral services were held on January 15, 2013 at the Central Avenue Synagogue in Highland Park, Illinois. Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web, delivered a eulogy.[112][113][114][115] On the same day, the Wall Street Journal ran a story based in part on an interview with Stinebrickner-Kauffman.[116] She told the Journal that Swartz lacked the money to pay for a lawsuit and “it was too hard for him to … bring that part of his life public” by asking for help. He’s also desperate, she said, because two of his friends have just been subpoenaed and because he no longer believes MIT will try to stop the prosecution.[116]
Several monuments soon followed. On January 19, hundreds attended a memorial service at the Cooper Union, where speakers included Stinebrickner-Kauffman, open-source advocate Doc Searls, Creative Commons’ Glenn Otis Brown, journalist Quinn Norton, Roy Singham of ThoughtWorks, and David Segal owned by Demand Progress. [117][118][119] On January 24th, a memorial service was held at the Internet Archive headquarters in San Francisco (video[120]) with speakers including Stinebrickner-Kauffman, Alex Stamos, Brewster Kahle[121] and Carl Malamud. [122] A memorial service was held at the Cannon House office building on Capitol Hill on February 4; Speakers at the memorial included Senator Ron Wyden and Representatives Darrell Issa, Alan Grayson and Jared Polis. [125][126] Other lawmakers present were Senator Elizabeth Warren and Reps. Zoe Lofgren and Jan Schakowsky.[125][126] A memorial service was also held on March 12 at the MIT Media Lab.[127]
Swartz’s family recommended GiveWell for donations in his memory, an organization Swartz admired, with whom he had worked and which was the sole beneficiary of his will.
Answer[edit]
US Department of Justice[edit]
Carmen M. Ortiz, then U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts, “As a parent and sister, I can only imagine the pain felt by Aaron Swartz’s family and friends […] However, I must be clear that this is the case conduct of the Office in collecting and handling this case was reasonable.”[130]
Family response[edit]
Aaron’s death is not simply a personal tragedy. It is the product of a criminal justice system steeped in intimidation and prosecutorial hyperbole. Decisions by officials from the Massachusetts United States Attorney’s Office and MIT contributed to his death. —Testimony from Aaron Swartz’s family and partner[131]
On January 12, 2013, Swartz’s family and partner released a statement criticizing prosecutors and MIT.[131] At his son’s funeral on January 15, Robert Swartz said, “Aaron was killed by the government and MIT betrayed all of its core principles.”[132]
Tom Dolan, husband of US Attorney for Massachusetts Carmen Ortiz, whose office was prosecuting Swartz’s case, responded with criticism of the Swartz family: “Really incredible that in their own son’s obituary they would blame others for his death and the 6 months offer.”[133] This comment drew some criticism; Esquire contributor Charlie Pierce replied, “The alacrity with which her husband and defense attorneys endured ‘a mere’ six months in federal prison, with or without security clearance to endure is another indication that something is seriously wrong with the way our prosecutors think today.”[134]
WITH [ edit ]
MIT maintains an open campus policy along with an “open network.” [79] [135] Two days after Swartz’s death, MIT President L. Rafael Reif commissioned Professor Hal Abelson to conduct an analysis of MIT’s options and decisions regarding Swartz’s “litigation.”[136][137] Um To lead the fact-finding phase of the review, MIT created a website where community members could suggest questions and issues for the review to address.[138][139]
Swartz’s attorneys requested that all pretrial discovery documents be released, a move MIT opposed.[140] Allies of Swartz have criticized MIT for resisting publication of the evidence without redacting.[141] On July 26, 2013, the Abelson Panel submitted a 182-page report to MIT President L. Rafael Reif, who authorized its release on July 30.[142][143][144] The panel reported that MIT did not support the charges against Swartz and acquitted the institution of wrongdoing. However, the report also found that despite MIT’s commitment to an open access culture at the institutional level and beyond, the university has never extended that support to Swartz. For example, the report revealed that MIT considered the possibility of making a public statement of its position on the case, but such a statement never materialized.[145]
Press [ Edit ]
The Huffington Post reported that “Ortiz has suffered significant backlash for pursuing the case against Swartz, including petitioning the White House to have her fired.”[146] Other news outlets have reported similarly.[147][148][ 149]
The Reuters news agency called Swartz “an online icon” who “helped make a virtual mountain of information freely available to the public, including an estimated 19 million pages of federal court documents.”[150] The Associated Press (AP) reported that the case of Swartz “highlights society’s uncertain, evolving view of how to treat people who break into computer systems and leak data, not for personal gain but for the purpose of making it available to others”[63] and that JSTOR’s attorney, former US Attorney for Mary Jo White of the Southern District of New York, had asked the chief prosecutor to drop the charges.[63]
Muralist BAMN (“By Any Means Necessary”) created a mural of Swartz, as described by editor Hrag Vartanian in Hyperallergic, Brooklyn, New York.[151] „Swartz war ein erstaunlicher Mensch, der unermüdlich für unser Recht auf ein freies und offenes Internet gekämpft hat“, erklärte der Künstler. „Er war viel mehr als nur der ‚Reddit-Typ‘.“
Am 17. April 2013 beschrieb Yuval Noah Harari Swartz als „den ersten Märtyrer der Bewegung für Informationsfreiheit“. Laut Harari verdeutlichte die Haltung von Swartz jedoch nicht den Glauben an die Personen- oder Meinungsfreiheit, sondern rührte von der zunehmenden Überzeugung der jungen Generation her, dass Informationen vor allem frei sein sollten.[152]
Es wurde berichtet, dass das Vermächtnis von Aaron Swartz die Bewegung des offenen Zugangs zu Stipendien stärkt. In Illinois, seinem Heimatstaat, veranlasste Swartz’ Einfluss staatliche Universitätsfakultäten, Richtlinien zugunsten von Open Access zu übernehmen.[153]
Internet [Bearbeiten]
Hacks [Bearbeiten]
Am 13. Januar 2013 hackten Mitglieder von Anonymous zwei Websites auf der MIT-Domäne und ersetzten sie durch Hommagen an Swartz, die Mitglieder der Internetgemeinschaft aufforderten, seinen Tod als Sammelpunkt für die Open-Access-Bewegung zu nutzen. Das Banner enthielt eine Liste von Forderungen nach Verbesserungen des US-Urheberrechtssystems, zusammen mit Swartz’ Guerilla Open Access Manifesto.[154] In der Nacht zum 18. Januar 2013 wurde das E-Mail-System des MIT für zehn Stunden vom Netz genommen.[155] Am 22. Januar wurde eine an das MIT gesendete E-Mail von den Hackern Aush0k und TibitXimer an das Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology umgeleitet. Der gesamte andere Datenverkehr zum MIT wurde zu einem Computer der Harvard University umgeleitet, der eine Erklärung mit der Überschrift „R.I.P Aaron Swartz“[156] mit Text aus einem Posting von Swartz aus dem Jahr 2009[157] zusammen mit einer Chiptune-Version von „The Star- Geschmücktes Spruchband”. Das MIT erlangte nach etwa sieben Stunden die volle Kontrolle zurück.[158] In den frühen Morgenstunden des 26. Januar 2013 wurde die Website der U.S. Sentencing Commission, USSC.gov, von Anonymous gehackt.[159][160] Die Homepage wurde durch ein eingebettetes YouTube-Video, Anonymous Operation Last Resort, ersetzt. In der Videoerklärung hieß es, Swartz „stand vor einer unmöglichen Wahl“.[161][162] Ein Hacker lud “Hunderttausende” Artikel aus wissenschaftlichen Zeitschriften von der Website eines Schweizer Verlags herunter und veröffentlichte sie zu Ehren von Swartz eine Woche vor seinem ersten Todestag erneut im offenen Web.[163]
Petition an das Weiße Haus [Bearbeiten]
Nach dem Tod von Swartz unterschrieben mehr als 50.000 Menschen eine Online-Petition[164] an das Weiße Haus, in der die Absetzung von Ortiz gefordert wurde, „wegen der Übertreibung im Fall von Aaron Swartz“.[165] Eine ähnliche Petition[166] wurde mit der Forderung eingereicht die Entlassung von Staatsanwalt Stephen Heymann.[167][168] Im Januar 2015, zwei Jahre nach Swartz’ Tod, lehnte das Weiße Haus beide Petitionen ab.[169]
Gedenken [ bearbeiten ]
External video on YouTube
Am 3. August 2013 wurde Swartz posthum in die Internet Hall of Fame aufgenommen.[20] Um das Datum seines Geburtstages im Jahr 2013 herum wurde ein Hackathon in Erinnerung an Swartz abgehalten.[170][171] Am Wochenende vom 8. bis 10. November 2013 wurde, inspiriert von Swartz’ Arbeit und Leben, ein zweiter jährlicher Hackathon in mindestens 16 Städten auf der ganzen Welt abgehalten.[172][173][174] Vorläufige Themen, an denen beim Aaron Swartz Hackathon 2013 gearbeitet wurde[175], waren Datenschutz und Software-Tools, Transparenz, Aktivismus, Zugang, rechtliche Lösungen und ein kostengünstiger Buchscanner.[176] Im Januar 2014 führte Lawrence Lessig zu Ehren von Swartz einen Spaziergang durch New Hampshire und sammelte sich für eine Reform der Wahlkampffinanzierung.
2017 erinnerte der türkisch-niederländische Künstler Ahmet Öğüt an Swartz mit einer Arbeit mit dem Titel „Information Power to The People“ und einer Darstellung seiner Büste.[179]
Information Power to The People, erstellt von Ahmet Öğüt. Eine Skulptur von Aaron Swartz mit dem Titel, erstellt von Ahmet Öğüt
Eine Tonstatue von Aaron Swartz im Internetarchiv
legacy [edit]
Open Access [Bearbeiten]
Als langjähriger Befürworter von Open Access schrieb Swartz in seinem Guerilla Open Access Manifesto:[44]
Das gesamte wissenschaftliche … Erbe … der Welt wird zunehmend von einer Handvoll privater Unternehmen digitalisiert und eingesperrt … Die Open-Access-Bewegung hat tapfer dafür gekämpft, dass Wissenschaftler ihre Urheberrechte nicht unterschreiben, sondern ihre Arbeit sichern wird im Internet unter Bedingungen veröffentlicht, die es jedem ermöglichen, darauf zuzugreifen.
Unterstützer von Swartz reagierten auf die Nachricht von seinem Tod mit einer Aktion namens #PDFTribute[180], um Open Access zu fördern.[181][182] Am 12. Januar begann Eva Vivalt, eine Entwicklungsökonomin bei der Weltbank, ihre wissenschaftlichen Artikel unter dem Hashtag #pdftribute als Hommage an Swartz online zu stellen.[182][183][184] Gelehrte posteten Links zu ihren Arbeiten.[185] The story of Aaron Swartz has exposed the topic of open access to scientific publications to wider audiences.[186][187] In the wake of Aaron Swartz, many institutions and personalities have campaigned for open access to scientific knowledge.[188] Swartz’s death prompted calls for more open access to scholarly data (e.g., open science data).[189][190] The Think Computer Foundation and the Center for Information Technology Policy (CITP) at Princeton University announced scholarships awarded in memory of Aaron Swartz.[191] In 2013, Swartz was posthumously awarded the American Library Association’s James Madison Award for being an “outspoken advocate for public participation in government and unrestricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles.”[192][193] In March, the editor and editorial board of the Journal of Library Administration resigned en masse, citing a dispute with the journal’s publisher, Routledge.[194] One board member wrote of a “crisis of conscience about publishing in a journal that was not open access” after the death of Aaron Swartz.[195][196] In 2002, Swartz had stated that when he died, he wanted all the contents of his hard drives made publicly available.[197][198]
congress [edit]
Several members of the U.S. House of Representatives – Republican Darrell Issa and Democrats Zoe Lofgren and subsequent Colorado Governor Jared Polis – all on the House Judiciary Committee, raised questions regarding the government’s handling of the case.
Calling the charges against him “ridiculous and trumped up,” Polis said Swartz was a “martyr”, whose death illustrated the need for Congress to limit the discretion of federal prosecutors.[199] Speaking at a memorial for Swartz on Capitol Hill, Issa said
Ultimately, knowledge belongs to all the people of the world…. Aaron understood that…. Our copyright laws were created for the purpose of promoting useful works, not hiding them.
Massachusetts Democratic Senator Elizabeth Warren issued a statement saying “[Aaron’s] advocacy for Internet freedom, social justice, and Wall Street reform demonstrated … the power of his ideas …”[200]
In a letter to Attorney General Eric Holder,[201] Texas Republican Senator John Cornyn asked, “On what basis did the U.S. Attorney for the District of Massachusetts conclude that her office’s conduct was ‘appropriate’?” and “Was the prosecution of Mr. Swartz in any way retaliation for his exercise of his rights as a citizen under the Freedom of Information Act?”[202][203][204]
Congressional investigations [ edit ]
Issa, who chaired the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, announced that he would investigate the Justice Department’s actions in prosecuting Swartz.[199] In a statement to The Huffington Post, he praised Swartz’s work toward “open government and free access to the people.” Issa’s investigation has garnered some bipartisan support.[200]
On January 28, 2013, Issa and ranking committee member Elijah Cummings published a letter to U.S. Attorney General Holder, questioning why federal prosecutors had filed the superseding indictment.[97][205] On February 20, WBUR reported that Ortiz was expected to testify at an upcoming Oversight Committee hearing about her office’s handling of the Swartz case.[206] On February 22, Associate Deputy Attorney General Steven Reich conducted a briefing for congressional staffers involved in the investigation.[207][208] They were told that Swartz’s Guerilla Open Access Manifesto played a role in prosecutorial decision-making.[43][207][208] Congressional staffers left this briefing believing that prosecutors thought Swartz had to be convicted of a felony carrying at least a short prison sentence in order to justify having filed the case against him in the first place.[207][208]
Excoriating the Department of Justice as the “Department of Vengeance”, Stinebrickner-Kauffman told the Guardian that the DOJ had erred in relying on Swartz’s Guerilla Open Access Manifesto as an accurate indication of his beliefs by 2010. “He was no longer a single issue activist,” she said. “He was into lots of things, from healthcare, to climate change to money in politics.”[43]
On March 6, Holder testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee that the case was “a good use of prosecutorial discretion.”[209] Stinebrickner-Kauffman issued a statement in reply, repeating and amplifying her claims of prosecutorial misconduct. Public documents, she wrote, reveal that prosecutor Stephen Heymann “instructed the Secret Service to seize and hold evidence without a warrant… lied to the judge about that fact in written briefs… [and] withheld exculpatory evidence… for over a year,” violating his legal and ethical obligations to turn such evidence over to the defense.[210] On March 22, Senator Al Franken wrote Holder a letter expressing concerns, writing that “charging a young man like Mr. Swartz with federal offenses punishable by over 35 years of federal imprisonment seems remarkably aggressive – particularly when it appears that one of the principal aggrieved parties … did not support a criminal prosecution.”[211]
Amendment to Computer Fraud and Abuse Act [ edit ]
In 2013, Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.) introduced a bill, Aaron’s Law (H.R. 2454, S. 1196[212]) to exclude terms of service violations from the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.[213]
Lawrence Lessig wrote of the bill, “this is a critically important change…. The CFAA was the hook for the government’s bullying…. This law would remove that hook. In a single line: no longer would it be a felony to breach a contract.”[214] Professor Orin Kerr, a specialist in the nexus between computer law and criminal law, wrote that he had been arguing for precisely this sort of reform of the Act for years.[215] The ACLU, too, has called for reform of the CFAA to “remove the dangerously broad criminalization of online activity.”[216] The EFF has mounted a campaign for these reforms.[217] Lessig’s inaugural Chair lecture as Furman Professor of Law and Leadership was entitled Aaron’s Laws: Law and Justice in a Digital Age; he dedicated the lecture to Swartz.[218][219][220][221]
The Aaron’s Law bill stalled in committee. Brian Knappenberger alleges this was due to Oracle Corporation’s financial interest in maintaining the status quo.[222]
Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act [ edit ]
The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR) is a bill that would mandate earlier public release of taxpayer-funded research. FASTR has been described as “The Other Aaron’s Law.”[223]
Senator Ron Wyden (D-Ore.) and Senator John Cornyn (R-Tex.) introduced the Senate version, in 2013 and again in 2015, while the bill was introduced to the House by Reps. Zoe Lofgren (D-Calif.), Mike Doyle (D-Pa.) and Kevin Yoder (R-Kans.). Senator Wyden wrote of the bill, “the FASTR act provides that access to taxpayer funded research should never be hidden behind a paywall.”[224]
While the legislation had not passed as of October 2015 , it helped to prompt some motion toward more open access on the part of the US administration. Shortly after the bill’s original introduction, the Office of Science and Technology Policy directed “each Federal agency with over $100 million in annual conduct of research and development expenditures to develop a plan to support increased public access to the results of research funded by the Federal Government.”[225]
media [edit]
Swartz has been featured in various works of art and has posthumously received dedications from numerous artists. In 2013, Kenneth Goldsmith dedicated his “Printing out the Internet” exhibition to Swartz.[226][227] There are also dedicated biographical films for Aaron:
The Internet’s Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz [ edit ]
On January 11, 2014, marking the first anniversary of his death, a preview was released of The Internet’s Own Boy: The Story of Aaron Swartz,[228] a documentary about Swartz, the NSA and SOPA.[229][230] The film was officially released at the January 2014 Sundance Film Festival.[231] Democracy Now! covered the release of the documentary, as well as Swartz’s life and legal case, in a sprawling interview with director Brian Knappenberger, Swartz’s father, brother, and his attorney.[232] The documentary is released under a Creative Commons License;[233][234] it debuted in theaters and on-demand in June 2014.[235]
Mashable called the documentary “a powerful homage to Aaron Swartz”. Its debut at Sundance received a standing ovation. Mashable printed, “With the help of experts, The Internet’s Own Boy makes a clear argument: Swartz unjustly became a victim of the rights and freedoms for which he stood.”[236] The Hollywood Reporter described it as a “heartbreaking” story of a “tech wunderkind persecuted by the US government”, and a must-see “for anyone who knows enough to care about the way laws govern information transfer in the digital age”.[237]
Killswitch [ edit ]
In October 2014, Killswitch, a documentary film featuring Aaron Swartz, as well as Lawrence Lessig, Tim Wu, and Edward Snowden, received its world premiere at the Woodstock Film Festival, where it won the award for Best Editing. The film focuses on Swartz’s role in advocating for internet freedoms.[238][239]
In February 2015, Killswitch was invited to screen at the Capitol Visitor’s Center in Washington, D.C. by Congressman Alan Grayson. The event was held on the eve of the Federal Communications Commission’s historic decision on Net Neutrality. Congressman Grayson, Lawrence Lessig, and Free Press CEO Craig Aaron spoke about Swartz and his fight on behalf of a free and open Internet at the event.[240][241]
Congressman Grayson states that Killswitch is “one of the most honest accounts of the battle to control the Internet – and access to information itself.”[240] Richard von Busack of the Metro Silicon Valley writes of Killswitch, “Some of the most lapidary use of found footage this side of The Atomic Café”.[238] Fred Swegles of the Orange County Register remarks, “Anyone who values unfettered access to online information is apt to be captivated by Killswitch, a gripping and fast-paced documentary.”[239] Kathy Gill of GeekWire asserts that “Killswitch is much more than a dry recitation of technical history. Director Ali Akbarzadeh, producer Jeff Horn, and writer Chris Dollar created a human-centered story. A large part of that connection comes from Lessig and his relationship with Swartz.”[242]
Other Movies[edit]
Patriot of the Web is an independent biographical film about Aaron Swartz, written and directed by Darius Burke. The film was released on September 15, 2019, onto YouTube.[243][244] Actor Shawn Mcclintock plays Aaron Swartz.[245][246][non-primary source needed] The film had a limited video on demand release in December 2017 on Reelhouse[247] and in January 2018 on Pivotshare.[248]
Another biographical film about Swartz, Think Aaron, is being developed by HBO Films.[249]
work [edit]
Specifications [ edit ]
Software [ edit ]
Publications[ edit ]
Notes [edit]
^ [262] Swartz has been referred to as “cofounder” in the press and by investor [36][263] Swartz has been identified as a cofounder of Reddit, but the title is a source of controversy. With the merger of Infogami and Reddit, Swartz became a co-owner and director of parent company Not A Bug, Inc., along with Reddit cofounders Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian Swartz has been referred to as “cofounder” in the press and by investor Paul Graham (who recommended the merger); Ohanian describes him as “co-owner”.
^ [14] The first federal indictment alleged “approximately 4.8 million articles”, “1.7 million” of which “were made available by independent publishers for purchase through JSTOR’s Publisher Sales Service.”[15] The subsequent DOJ press release alleged “over four million articles”. The superseding indictment removed the estimates and instead characterized the amount as “a major portion of the total archive in which JSTOR had invested.”[15] The MIT network administration office told MIT police that “approximately 70 gigabytes of data had been downloaded, 98% of which was from JSTOR.”The first federal indictment alleged “approximately 4.8 million articles”, “1.7 million” of which “were made available by independent publishers for purchase through JSTOR’s Publisher Sales Service.”The subsequent DOJ press release alleged “over four million articles”. The superseding indictment removed the estimates and instead characterized the amount as “a major portion of the total archive in which JSTOR had invested.”
See also[edit]
References[ edit ]
Further Reading[edit]
Documentary [edit]
Definition from WhatIs.com
Reddit is a social news site and forum where content is socially curated and promoted by site members through votes. The site name is a pun on the words “I read it”.
Registering as a Reddit member is free and required to use the site’s basic features.
For a monthly fee or an annual subscription, Redditors can upgrade to Reddit Gold. This service offers a number of advanced features that are not available to non-paying users. Reddit Gold features include access to members-only communities and the ability to disable sidebar ads.
What are subreddits and how do they work? The site is made up of hundreds of subcommunities known as subreddits. Each subreddit has a specific theme, such as technology, politics, or music. Reddit’s homepage, or front page as it’s often called, consists of the most popular posts from any standard subreddit. The default list is predefined and includes subreddits like “Pictures”, “Funny”, “Videos”, “News” and “Games”. Reddit site members, also known as Redditors, submit content for other members to vote on. The goal is to place viewed content at the top of the website’s front page. Upvotes and downvotes are used to vote on content: arrows that users click to the left of a post. The more upvotes a post gets, the more popular it becomes and the higher up it appears on its respective subreddit or front page. To access a subreddit from the address bar, just type “reddit.com/r/subreddit name”.
How to Use Reddit Upon reaching the site’s homepage, users will notice a list of posts – a collection of text posts, link posts, images, and videos. If you’re logged out of a Reddit account, the front page consists of the site’s default subreddits — a list of about 50 topics, including music, videos, news, and GIFs, among others. After creating an account, users are automatically “subscribed” to the list of default subreddits. Users can then unsubscribe from any default subreddits they don’t want to see, and they can subscribe to additional subreddits to get a personalized front page of content they care about. Users can also comment on posts after creating an account. Commenting is one of Reddit’s core features and, along with private messages, is the primary way for users to interact with one another. Comments can be rated like contributions by users and are then ranked accordingly. The comment with the most votes is at the top of the comments section and is known as the top comment.
Reddit Company Information Reddit is similar to Digg, another user-generated social networking site. Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian founded Reddit in 2005, and Condé Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. Reddit was separated from Condé Nast in 2011 and is now known as Advance Publications. A July 8, 2012 NYMag.com article reported that 35 million new users join Reddit every month.
Notable controversies Since its inception, Reddit has been the subject of many controversies, some big enough to make headlines.
Website Stats and User Demographics At the time of this writing, Reddit is the 24th most visited website in the world and the 7th most visited website in the United States, with the US accounting for 46.9% of website visitors, according to web traffic data and analytics firm Alexa Internet. According to a 2016 study by the Pew Research Center, 71% of Reddit viewers are men.
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