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Torry Martin is an American actor and stand-up comedian. He is famous for his work in various films like Acquitted by Faith, Heaven Bound, Mountain Top, The Good Book and many more.
In addition to acting, Torry is also a writer. He has written Adventures in Odyssey, a children’s radio series. He is also the author of famous books such as Under the Circumstances and What a Character.
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10 Facts About Torry Martin
Torry Martin’s age seems to be 40-50 years old. He dn’t reveal his actual date of birth, so it’s troublesome for us to find out his real age. Although Torry Martin is a famous person, he has not yet been mentioned on Wikipedia. According to IMDb, he worked as a producer on the film Heaven Bound and has a total of 26 acting credits to date. Torry Martin is not yet married and has no wife. In an interview with AIOHQ, he mentioned that he consered himself married to Jesus. He finds himself a friend to everyone. American writer Torry Martin has never mentioned anything about his family members and parents in the media or on the internet. Torry Martin’s exact height and weight are unknown. He hasn’t revealed much information about his body measurements. However, when we browsed his Instagram page, we found that he is taller than average. Torry Martin is available on Instagram and has 1.2k fan followers as of January 2021. Speaking of Torry Martin’s net worth, it’s still being verified. According to PayScale, the average income for an actor is about $50,000 per year. Having worked in this field for over 25 years, he probably earns a lot more than that. Torry Martin has a strong faith in Jesus. After becoming a Christian, he moved to Alaska and studied the Bible while growing in his faith. Martin twice won the grand prize in a national competition called Christian Artists sponsored by the Gospel Music Association. In 2011, Torry Martin published a book titled Shameless Self Promotion.
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Who Is Torry Martin? His Age, Wikipedia Bio: 10 Facts To Know
Learn about Torry Martin Age, Wikipedia, Wife, Family, Height, Instagram, Net Worth, and 10 Facts. Torry Martin is an actor.
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Torry Martin Age, Wikipedia, Wife, Biography Family, Height, Instagram, Net Worth. T Fault Martin is an American actor and comedian.
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John Milton – Wikipedia
John Milton (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674) was an English poet and intellectual who served as a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under its …
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Torry Martin is our very own “Hippie for the Holy One!” A former Alaskan and award-winning actor, screenwriter, comedian, and author, Torry currently resides in Sparta, Tennessee. He is a two-time winner of the Gospel Music Association Grand Prize for both his acting and his writing skills. He is also a humor columnist for several national magazines, including On Course and Clubhouse, and is also the author of seven comedy sketchbooks for Lillenas Drama Publishers. Martin has also had the great pleasure of co-writing several screenplays with his good friend Marshal Younger.
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John Milton
17th-century English poet and civil servant
For others named John Milton, see John Milton (disambiguation)
John Milton (9 December 1608 – 8 November 1674) was an English poet and intellectual who served as a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under its Council of State and later under Oliver Cromwell. Writing at a time of religious change and political upheaval, he is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667). Written in blank verse, Paradise Lost is widely regarded as one of the greatest works of literature ever written.[1]
He wrote in English, Latin and Italian and achieved international renown during his lifetime; his famous Areopagitica (1644), written in condemnation of censorship before publication, is among the most influential and fervent defenses of freedom of speech and of the press in history. His desire for freedom extended to his style: he introduced new words (coined from Latin and ancient Greek) into the English language and was the first modern writer to use unrhymed verse outside of the theater or translation.
William Hayley’s 1796 biography called him “the greatest English author”,[2] and he continues to be widely regarded as “one of the pre-eminent writers in the English language”,[3] although critical reception has vacillated in the centuries since his death (often because of his republicanism). Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as “a poem which … may claim first place in design and second in performance among the productions of the human mind”, although he (a Tory) described Milton’s politics as that of a “bitter and sullen Republican.”[4] Poets such as William Blake, William Wordsworth and Thomas Hardy revered him.
Biography[edit]
The phases of Milton’s life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain. Milton studied, travelled, wrote poetry mainly for private circulation, and launched a career as a pamphleteer and publicist under the increasingly personal rule of Charles I and its collapse into constitutional confusion and war. The change in accepted attitudes in government brought him to public office under the Commonwealth of England as he was no longer considered dangerously radical and heretical, and he even served as the official spokesman in some of its publications. The Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now totally blind, of his public platform, but it was during this period that he completed most of his most important poetic works.
Milton’s views developed from his very extensive reading, travel and experiences from his student days in the 1620s to the English Civil War. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the fringes of English intellectual life, but famous throughout Europe and unrepentant for his political decisions.
Early life[edit]
Blue Plaque in Bread Street, London where Milton was born
John Milton was born on December 9, 1608 in Bread Street, London to the composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The Senior John Milton (1562–1647) moved to London about 1583, having been disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard “the Ranger” Milton for adopting Protestantism.[6] In London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey (1572–1637) and enjoyed enduring financial success as a scribe.[7] He lived and worked in a house on Bread Street where the Mermaid Tavern in Cheapside was located. The elder Milton was known for his skill as a music composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes.[8]
Milton’s father’s wealth provided his eldest son with a private tutor, Thomas Young, a Scottish Presbyterian with an M.A. from the University of St Andrews. Research suggests that Young’s influence served as the poet’s introduction to religious radicalism.[9] After Young’s tutoring period, Milton attended St. Paul’s School in London. There he began studying Latin and Greek, and the classical languages informed both his poetry and prose in English (he also wrote in Latin and Italian).
Milton’s first datable compositions are two psalms, composed at Long Bennington when he was 15 years old. A contemporary source is Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an inconsistent compilation of firsthand accounts. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Milton’s younger brother: “When he was young he studied very hard and sat up very late, usually till twelve or one o’clock in the morning.” Aubrey adds, “His complexion was exceedingly fair – he was so fair they called him the Lady of Christ’s College.”[10]
In 1625 Milton began attending Christ’s College, Cambridge. He graduated with a B.A. in 1629,[11] ranked fourth out of 24 honorary graduates that year at the University of Cambridge.[12] Milton prepared to become an Anglican priest, stayed and received his Master of Arts on 3 July 1632.
Milton was rusticated (suspended) possibly in his freshman year over a dispute with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. In Lent 1626 he was certainly at home in London; there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, a friend from St. Paul’s. Based on comments by John Aubrey, Chappell “whipped” Milton.[10] This story is controversial today, although Milton certainly disliked Chappell. Historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was “apparently” rustic, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton could have been either religious or personal. It is also possible that like Isaac Newton, Milton was sent home four decades later because of the plague that severely affected Cambridge in 1625. Milton’s teacher in 1626 was Nathaniel Tovey.
At Cambridge, Milton was on good terms with Edward King, for whom he later wrote Lycidas. He also befriended Anglo-American dissident and theologian Roger Williams. Milton tutored Williams in Hebrew in exchange for instruction in Dutch. After once watching his fellow students try their hand at comedy on the college stage, he later remarked, “They thought they were brave men, and I thought them fools.”[16]
Milton despised the university’s curriculum, which consisted of stilted, formal debates conducted in Latin on obscure subjects. His own corpus is not without humor, particularly his sixth prolusion and his epitaphs on the death of Thomas Hobson. While at Cambridge he wrote a number of his well-known shorter English poems, including On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity, his Epitaph on the admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare (his first printed poem). , L’Allegro and Il Penseroso.
Studies, poetry and travel[edit]
In all his writings it seems that he had the usual concomitant of great ability, a sublime and abiding confidence in himself, perhaps not without a certain contempt for others; for hardly anyone has ever written so much and praised so few. He was very frugal with his praise; since he valued it highly and regarded the mention of a name as security against wasting time and as a certain protection against oblivion.[17] — Samuel Johnson, Lives of the Greatest English Poets
After receiving his M.A. in 1632 Milton retired to Hammersmith, his father’s new home since the previous year. From 1635 he also resided in Horton, Berkshire, and undertook six years of his self-directed private study. Hill argues that this was no retreat into a rural idyll; Hammersmith was then a “suburban village” that fell into the orbit of London, and even Horton was cut down and suffered from the plague.[18] He read both ancient and modern works of theology, philosophy, history, politics, literature and science in preparation for a future poetic career. Milton’s intellectual development can be traced through entries in his everyday book (like a scrapbook), now in the British Library. Because of his intense study, Milton is considered one of the most learned of all English poets. In addition to his years of private study, Milton was proficient in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, and Italian from high school and university; He also added Old English to his linguistic repertoire in the 1650s while researching his history of Britain, and probably acquired knowledge of Dutch soon after.
Blue plaque ‘John Milton lived here 1632-1638′ at Berkyn Manor Farm, Horton, Berkshire
Milton continued to write poetry throughout this college period; His Arcades and Comus were both commissioned for masques composed for noble patrons, connections of the Egerton family, and performed in 1632 and 1634 respectively. Comus argues for the virtues of temperance and chastity. He contributed his pastoral elegy Lycidas to a memorial collection for a fellow student at Cambridge. Drafts of these poems are preserved in Milton’s book of poems, known as the Trinity Manuscript because it is now preserved at Trinity College, Cambridge.
In May 1638, accompanied by a servant, Milton embarked on a 15-month journey through France and Italy, lasting until July or August 1639. His travels complemented his studies with new and direct experiences of artistic and religious traditions, particularly Roman Catholicism. He met famous theoreticians and intellectuals of the time and was able to put his poetic skills to the test. For specific details of what happened on Milton’s “Grand Tour,” there seems to be only one primary source: Milton’s own Defensio Secunda. There are other notes, including some letters and some references in his other prose treatises, but the bulk of the information about the tour comes from a work which, according to Barbara Lewalski, “was not intended as an autobiography, but as rhetoric to emphasize its excellence.” reputation among the scholars of Europe.”[21]
With a letter from the diplomat Henry Wotton to the Ambassador John Scudamore, he traveled first to Calais and then to Paris on horseback. Through Scudamore, Milton met Hugo Grotius, a Dutch legal philosopher, playwright and poet. Milton left France shortly after this meeting. He traveled south from Nice to Genoa and then to Livorno and Pisa. He reached Florence in July 1638. There, Milton enjoyed many of the city’s sights and structures. His outspoken manner and erudite Neo-Latin poetry earned him friends in Florentine intellectual circles, and he met the astronomer Galileo, who was under house arrest in Arcetri, and others.[22] Milton probably attended the Florentine Academy and the Accademia della Crusca along with smaller academies in the area including the Apatisti and the Svogliati.
I stayed about two months in [Florence], which I have always admired above all for the elegance not only of his tongue but also of his wit. There I became the immediate friend of many eminent and learned gentlemen, whose private academies I attended – a Florentine institution which deserves great praise not only for promoting humane studies but also for promoting friendship.[23] — Milton’s account of Florence in Defensio Secunda
He left Florence in September for Rome. With connections from Florence, Milton had easy access to Rome’s intellectual society. His poetic skills impressed, among others, Giovanni Salzilli, who praised Milton in an epigram. In late October, despite his aversion to the Society of Jesus, Milton attended a dinner given by the English College in Rome and met English Catholics who were also guests—theologian Henry Holden and the poet Patrick Cary.[24] He also attended musical events, including oratorios, operas and melodramas. Milton left for Naples towards the end of November, where he stayed only a month because of Spanish control.[25] During this time he was introduced to Giovanni Battista Manso, patron of both Torquato Tasso and Giambattista Marino.[26]
Milton originally intended to leave Naples for Sicily and then on to Greece, but he returned to England in the summer of 1639 because he claimed in Defensio Secunda[27] that it was “sad news of a civil war in England”. “[28] Matters became more complicated when Milton received news that his childhood friend Diodati had died. In fact, Milton stayed on the continent for another seven months, spending some time in Geneva with Diodati’s uncle after returning to Rome. In Defensio Secunda, Milton announced that he was warned against returning to Rome because of his openness to religion, but he stayed in the city for two months and was able to experience the carnival and meet Lukas Holste, a Vatican librarian who guided Milton through the carnival led collection. He was introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, who invited Milton to an opera moderated by the cardinal. Around March, Milton again traveled to Florence, stayed there for two months, attended further meetings of the academies, and spent time with friends. After leaving Florence, he traveled through Lucca, Bologna and Ferrara before arriving in Venice. In Venice Milton was exposed to a model of republicanism that would later become important in his political writings, but he soon found a different model when he traveled to Geneva. From Switzerland, Milton traveled to Paris and then to Calais before finally arriving back in England in July or August 1639.[29]
Civil War, Prose Treatises and Marriage[ edit ]
Areopagitica Frontispiece of the 1644 edition
On his return to England, where the Bishops’ Wars heralded further armed conflict, Milton began to write prose treatises against the episcopate in the service of the Puritan and Parliamentary cause. Milton’s first foray into polemics was Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England (1641), followed by Of Prelatical Episcopacy, the two defenses of Smectymnuus (a group of Presbyterian clergymen named after their initials; the ‘TY’ belonged to Milton’s old tutor Thomas Young) and The Sanity of Church Government Urged Against the Prelates. He vigorously attacked the High Church party of the Church of England and its leader William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, often using passages of genuine eloquence illuminating the rough, controversial style of the time and employing a wide knowledge of Church history.
He was supported by his father’s investments, but Milton became a private schoolmaster at this time, educating his nephews and other children of the wealthy. This experience and discussions with the educational reformer Samuel Hartlib led him to write his short tract Of Education in 1644, urging reform of the national universities.
In June 1642, Milton visited the manor house at Forest Hill, Oxfordshire, and at the age of 34 married 17-year-old Mary Powell. The marriage got off to a bad start as Mary did not adjust to Milton’s strict lifestyle or get along with his nephews. Milton found her intellectually unsatisfactory and disliked the royalist views she had inherited from her family. It is also speculated that she refused to consummate the marriage. Mary soon returned home to her parents and did not return until 1645, partly because of the outbreak of the Civil War.[30]
Meanwhile, her desertion prompted Milton to publish a series of pamphlets over the next three years arguing for the legality and morality of divorce beyond adultery. (Anna Beer, one of Milton’s most recent biographers [ab?], points to a lack of evidence and the dangers of cynicism when she suggests that it was not necessarily the case that private life so animated public polemics.) By 1643, Milton had been at odds with the authorities over these writings, in parallel with Hezekiah Woodward, who had more problems.[32] It was the hostile reaction to the Divorce Treatises that spurred Milton to write the Areopagitica; A Speech by Sir John Milton for the Freedom of Unlicensed Printing before the Parliament of England, his celebrated attack on pre-press censorship. In Areopagitica Milton joins the parliamentary cause and he also begins to synthesize the ideal of neo-Roman liberty with that of Christian liberty[33]. Milton was also courting another woman during this period; we don’t know anything about her except that her name was Davis and she turned it down. However, it was enough to cause Mary Powell to return to him, which she unexpectedly did by asking him to take her back. She bore him two daughters in quick succession after their reconciliation.[34][35]
Secretary for Foreign Languages[edit]
With Parliamentary victory in the Civil War, Milton used his pen in defense of Commonwealth republican principles. The Reign of Kings and Magistrates (1649) defended the right of the people to hold their rulers to account and implicitly sanctioned regicide; Milton’s political reputation led to his being appointed Secretary of Foreign Languages by the Council of State in March 1649. His main task was to draft the English Republic’s foreign correspondence in Latin and other languages, but he was also called upon to produce propaganda for the regime and to serve as a censor.[36]
In October 1649 he published Eikonoclastes, an explicit defense of regicide, in response to Eikon Basilike, a phenomenal bestseller popularly attributed to Charles I, depicting the king as an innocent Christian martyr. A month later, the exiled Charles II and his party published the Defense of the Monarchy Defensio Regia per Carolo Primo, written by the leading humanist Claudius Salmasius. By January of the following year, Milton was commissioned by the Council of State to write a defense of the English people. Faced with the desire of European audiences and the English Republic to establish diplomatic and cultural legitimacy, Milton worked more slowly than usual as he drew on what he had accumulated over his years of study to compose a counter-response.
On February 24, 1652, Milton published his Defense of the English People in Latin, Defensio pro Populo Anglicano, also known as the First Defence. Milton’s pure Latin prose and evident learning exemplified in the First Defense quickly earned him a European reputation, and the work ran to numerous editions. He addressed his sonnet 16 to “The Lord General Cromwell in May 1652”, beginning with “Cromwell, our Chief of Men…”, although it was not published until 1654.[39]
In 1654 Milton completed the Second Defense of the English Nation Defensio secunda in response to an anonymous Royalist tract Regii Sanguinis Clamor ad Coelum Adversus Parricidas Anglicanos [The Cry of Royal Blood to Heaven Against the English Parricides], a work which was made much personal Attacks on Milton.[40] The second defense praised Oliver Cromwell, now Lord Protector, and exhorted him to remain true to the principles of the Revolution. Alexander More, to whom Milton erroneously attributed the Clamor (actually by Peter du Moulin), published An Attack on Milton, whereupon Milton published the autobiographical Defensio pro se in 1655, Commonwealth Council of State to 1660, although after being completely blinded, most of the work by his deputies, Georg Rudolph Wecklein, then Philip Meadows, and from 1657 by the poet Andrew Marvell.[41]
By 1652 Milton was completely blind;[42] the cause of his blindness is disputed, but bilateral retinal detachment or glaucoma are the most likely.[43] His blindness forced him to dictate his verse and prose to scholars who copied them from him; one of them was Andrew Marvell. One of his best-known sonnets, When I Consider How My Light is Spent, entitled “On His Blindness” by a later editor, John Newton, probably dates from this period.[44]
The restoration[edit]
Cromwell’s death in 1658 caused the English Republic to split into warring factions, both military and political. However, Milton stubbornly held to the beliefs that originally inspired him to write for the Commonwealth. In 1659 he published A Treatise of Civil Power, attacking the concept of a state-dominated church (the position known as Erastianism), considerations of the most likely means of removing hirelings, and denouncing corrupt practices in church leadership. As the Republic collapsed, Milton wrote several proposals to maintain a non-monarchical government against the will of Parliament, the soldiers, and the people.[45][46]
After the Restoration in May 1660, Milton went into hiding, fearing for his life while a warrant was issued for his arrest and his writings burned. He resurfaced after a general pardon was issued, but was nonetheless arrested and briefly imprisoned before influential friends like Marvell, now an MP, intervened. Milton married a third and last time on 24 February 1663, and married Elizabeth (Betty) Minshull, aged 24, a native of Wistaston, Cheshire. He spent the remaining decade of his life quietly in London, only retiring to a cottage during the Great Plague of London – Milton’s Cottage in Chalfont St Giles, his only surviving home.
During this period, Milton published several smaller prose works, such as the grammar textbook Art of Logic and A History of Britain. His only explicitly political tracts were the 1672 Of True Religion, in which he advocated tolerance (except for Catholics), and a translation of a Polish tract advocating an elective monarchy. These two works were referred to in the Exclusion Debate, an attempt to exclude the heir apparent to the throne of England – James, Duke of York – because he was Roman Catholic. This debate preoccupied politics in the 1670s and 1680s and hastened the founding of the Whig party and the Glorious Revolution.
death [edit]
Milton died on November 8, 1674 and was buried in the Church of St Giles-without-Cripplegate, Fore Street, London.[47] However, sources differ as to whether the cause of death was consumption or gout.[47][48] According to an early biographer, “His funeral was attended by his learned and great friends in London, not without a friendly assembly of the vulgar.” [49] In 1793 a memorial carved by John Bacon the Elder was added.
family [edit]
Milton and his first wife Mary Powell (1625–1652) had four children:[50]
Anne (born 29 July 1646)
Mary (born October 25, 1648)
John (March 16, 1651 – June 1652)
Deborah (May 2, 1652 – August 10, 1727[51])
Mary Powell died on May 5, 1652 from complications related to Deborah’s birth. Milton’s daughters reached adulthood, but he always had a strained relationship with them.
On November 12, 1656, Milton married Katherine Woodcock at St Margaret’s, Westminster.[52] She died on February 3, 1658, less than four months after giving birth to their daughter Katherine, who also died.
Milton married for the third time on 24 February 1663, Elizabeth Mynshull or Minshull (1638–1728), niece of Thomas Mynshull, a wealthy Manchester apothecary and philanthropist. The wedding took place at St. Mary Aldermary in the City of London. Despite a 31-year age difference, according to John Aubrey, the marriage appeared to be a happy one and lasted more than 12 years until Milton’s death. (A plaque on the wall of Mynshull’s Manchester home describes Elizabeth as Milton’s “third and best wife.”) However, Samuel Johnson claims that Mynshull was “a domestic companion and companion” and that Milton’s nephew, Edward Phillips, told that Mynshull was “repressive ‘ was his children while he was alive and betrayed them at his death”.[53]
His nephews Edward and John Phillips (sons of Milton’s sister Anne) were raised by Milton and became writers themselves. John acted as secretary and Edward was Milton’s first biographer.
poetry [edit]
Milton’s poetry was slow to see the light of day, at least under his name. His first published poem was “On Shakespeare” (1630), which was included anonymously in the second folio edition of William Shakespeare’s Plays in 1632. It has been suggested that an annotated copy of the first folio contains marginal notes by Milton. Milton collected his work in 1645 poems amidst the excitement that accompanied the possibility of a new English government. The anonymous edition of Comus was published in 1637, and the 1638 publication of Lycidas in Justa Edouardo King Naufrago was signed J. M. Sonst. The 1645 collection was the only poetry of his to be printed until Paradise Lost appeared in 1667.
Paradise Lost[edit]
Milton Dictating Paradise Lost to His Three Daughters, ca. 1826, by , ca. 1826, by Eugène Delacroix
Milton’s magnum opus, the epic blank verse poem Paradise Lost, was composed by the blind and impoverished Milton from 1658 to 1664 (first edition), with minor but significant revisions being published in 1674 (second edition). A blind poet, Milton dictated his verses to a number of associates who worked for him. It has been argued that the poem reflects his personal despair at the failure of the revolution, but affirms an ultimate optimism about human potential. Some literary critics have argued that Milton coded many references to his unyielding support for the “good old cause”.
On 27 April 1667[56] Milton sold the publishing rights to Paradise Lost to publisher Samuel Simmons for £5 (equivalent to approximately £770 in 2015 purchasing power),[57] with a further £5 to be paid if the print run was sold out between 1,300 and 1,500 copies.[58] The first edition was a quarto edition priced at three shillings a copy (about £23 in 2015 purchasing power equivalent), published in August 1667 and sold out within eighteen months.[59]
Milton followed the publication of Paradise Lost with his sequel Paradise Regained, published in 1671 along with the tragedy Samson Agonistes. Both works also reflect Milton’s political situation after the Restoration. Shortly before his death in 1674, Milton oversaw a second edition of Paradise Lost, accompanied by an explanation ‘why the poem doesn’t rhyme’ and introductory verses by Andrew Marvell. In 1673 Milton republished his poems of 1645, as well as a collection of his letters and the Latin prolusions from his Cambridge days.
Views [ edit ]
An unfinished religious manifesto, De doctrina christiana, probably written by Milton, sets out many of his heterodox theological views and was not discovered and published until 1823. Milton’s key beliefs were idiosyncratic, not those of any identifiable group or faction, and often they were far beyond the orthodoxy of the time. Its tone, however, stemmed from the Puritan emphasis on the centrality and sanctity of conscience.[60] He was his own man, but he was anticipated by Henry Robinson in Areopagitica. [Clarification required]
philosophy [edit]
While Milton’s beliefs are generally considered to be consistent with Protestant Christianity, Stephen Fallon argues that by the late 1650s Milton may have toyed with at least the idea of monism, or animistic materialism, the notion that a single material substance that “animates , itself is -active and free” composes everything in the universe: from stones and trees and bodies to minds, souls, angels and God.[61] Fallon claims that Milton developed this position to avoid the mind-body dualism of Plato and Descartes and the mechanistic determinism of Hobbes. According to Fallon, Milton’s monism is reflected most clearly in Paradise Lost when he makes angels eat (5.433–439) [clarification needed] and apparently has sexual intercourse (8.622–629) [clarification needed] and the De Doctrina, where he denies the dual nature of man and pleads for a theory of creation ex Deo.
Political thinking[edit]
Milton war ein „leidenschaftlich individueller christlich-humanistischer Dichter“.[62] Er erscheint auf den Seiten des englischen Puritanismus des 17. Jahrhunderts, einem Zeitalter, das als „die Welt auf den Kopf gestellt“ charakterisiert wurde.[63] Er war ein Puritaner und wollte sich dennoch nicht ergeben Gewissen gegenüber Parteipositionen zur öffentlichen Ordnung. So führte Miltons politisches Denken, angetrieben von konkurrierenden Überzeugungen, einem reformierten Glauben und einem humanistischen Geist, zu rätselhaften Ergebnissen.
Miltons scheinbar widersprüchliche Haltung zu den lebenswichtigen Problemen seiner Zeit ergab sich aus religiösen Auseinandersetzungen zu den Fragen der göttlichen Rechte der Könige. In beiden Fällen scheint er alles unter Kontrolle zu haben, indem er eine Bilanz der Situation zieht, die sich aus der Polarisierung der englischen Gesellschaft in religiöser und politischer Hinsicht ergibt. Er kämpfte mit den Puritanern gegen die Kavaliere, d.h. die Partei des Königs, und half, den Tag zu gewinnen. Aber das gleiche konstitutionelle und republikanische Gemeinwesen, als Milton versuchte, die Meinungsfreiheit einzuschränken, schrieb angesichts seines humanistischen Eifers Areopagitica. . .[64]
Areopagitica Titelseite von John Miltons Ausgabe von 1644
Miltons politisches Denken kann am besten nach den jeweiligen Perioden in seinem Leben und Zeiten kategorisiert werden. Die Jahre 1641–42 waren der Kirchenpolitik und dem Kampf gegen das Episkopat gewidmet. Nach seinen Scheidungsschriften Areopagitica und einer Lücke schrieb er 1649–54 in der Zeit nach der Hinrichtung Karls I. eine polemische Rechtfertigung des Königsmordes und des bestehenden parlamentarischen Regimes. Dann sah er 1659–60 die Restauration voraus und schrieb, um sie abzuwenden.[65]
Miltons eigene Überzeugungen waren in einigen Fällen unpopulär, insbesondere sein Engagement für den Republikanismus. In den kommenden Jahrhunderten würde Milton als früher Apostel des Liberalismus gelten.[66] Laut James Tully:
… bei Locke wie bei Milton schließen sich republikanische und kontrahierende Vorstellungen von politischer Freiheit zusammen, um sich gemeinsam gegen die ungebundene und passive Unterwerfung zu stellen, die von Absolutisten wie Hobbes und Robert Filmer angeboten wird.[67]
Ein Freund und Verbündeter in den Flugschriftenkriegen war Marchamont Nedham. Austin Woolrych ist der Ansicht, dass, obwohl sie sich ziemlich nahe standen, zwischen ihren Ansätzen “wenig echte Affinität, abgesehen von einem breiten Republikanismus” besteht.[68] Blair Worden bemerkt, dass sowohl Milton als auch Nedham, zusammen mit anderen wie Andrew Marvell und James Harrington, ihr Problem mit dem Rumpfparlament nicht in der Republik selbst gesehen hätten, sondern in der Tatsache, dass es keine richtige Republik war.[69] Woolrych spricht von “der Kluft zwischen Miltons Vision der Zukunft des Commonwealth und der Realität”.[70] In der frühen Version seiner 1649 begonnenen History of Britain schrieb Milton die Mitglieder des Langen Parlaments bereits als unverbesserlich ab.[71]
Er lobte Oliver Cromwell, als das Protektorat eingerichtet wurde; obwohl er später große Vorbehalte hatte. Als Cromwell nach ein paar Jahren an der Macht als Revolutionär rückfällig zu werden schien, rückte Milton näher an die Position von Sir Henry Vane heran, an den er 1652 ein Sonett schrieb. Zu der Gruppe der unzufriedenen Republikaner gehörten neben Vane John Bradshaw, John Hutchinson, Edmund Ludlow, Henry Marten, Robert Overton, Edward Sexby und John Streater; aber nicht Marvell, der mit der Partei von Cromwell blieb. Milton had already commended Overton, along with Edmund Whalley and Bulstrode Whitelocke, in Defensio Secunda.[75] Nigel Smith writes that
… John Streater, and the form of republicanism he stood for, was a fulfilment of Milton’s most optimistic ideas of free speech and of public heroism […][76]
As Richard Cromwell fell from power, he envisaged a step towards a freer republic or “free commonwealth”, writing in the hope of this outcome in early 1660. Milton had argued for an awkward position, in the Ready and Easy Way, because he wanted to invoke the Good Old Cause and gain the support of the republicans, but without offering a democratic solution of any kind.[77] His proposal, backed by reference (amongst other reasons) to the oligarchical Dutch and Venetian constitutions, was for a council with perpetual membership. This attitude cut right across the grain of popular opinion of the time, which swung decisively behind the restoration of the Stuart monarchy that took place later in the year.[78] Milton, an associate of and advocate on behalf of the regicides, was silenced on political matters as Charles II returned.
Theology [ edit ]
Milton was neither a clergyman nor a theologian; however, theology, and particularly English Calvinism, formed the palette on which John Milton created his greatest thoughts. John Milton wrestled with the great doctrines of the Church amidst the theological crosswinds of his age. The great poet was undoubtedly Reformed (though his grandfather, Richard “the Ranger” Milton had been Roman Catholic).[79][6] However, Milton’s Calvinism had to find expression in a broad-spirited Humanism. Like many Renaissance artists before him, Milton attempted to integrate Christian theology with classical modes. In his early poems, the poet narrator expresses a tension between vice and virtue, the latter invariably related to Protestantism. In Comus, Milton may make ironic use of the Caroline court masque by elevating notions of purity and virtue over the conventions of court revelry and superstition. In his later poems, Milton’s theological concerns become more explicit.
His use of biblical citation was wide-ranging; Harris Fletcher, standing at the beginning of the intensification of the study of the use of scripture in Milton’s work (poetry and prose, in all languages Milton mastered), notes that typically Milton clipped and adapted biblical quotations to suit the purpose, giving precise chapter and verse only in texts for a more specialized readership. As for the plenitude of Milton’s quotations from scripture, Fletcher comments, “For this work, I have in all actually collated about twenty-five hundred of the five to ten thousand direct Biblical quotations which appear therein”.[80] Milton’s customary English Bible was the Authorized King James.[81] When citing and writing in other languages, he usually employed the Latin translation by Immanuel Tremellius, though “he was equipped to read the Bible in Latin, in Greek, and in Hebrew, including the Targumim or Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament, and the Syriac version of the New, together with the available commentaries of those several versions”.[80]
Milton embraced many heterodox Christian theological views. He has been accused of rejecting the Trinity, believing instead that the Son was subordinate to the Father, a position known as Arianism; and his sympathy or curiosity was probably engaged by Socinianism: in August 1650 he licensed for publication by William Dugard the Racovian Catechism, based on a non-trinitarian creed.[82][83] Milton’s alleged Arianism, like much of his theology, is still subject of debate and controversy. Rufus Wilmot Griswold argued that “In none of his great works is there a passage from which it can be inferred that he was an Arian; and in the very last of his writings he declares that “the doctrine of the Trinity is a plain doctrine in Scripture.”[84] In Areopagitica, Milton classified Arians and Socinians as “errorists” and “schismatics” alongside Arminians and Anabaptists.[85] A source has interpreted him as broadly Protestant, if not always easy to locate in a more precise religious category. In 2019, John Rogers stated, “Heretics both, John Milton and Isaac Newton were, as most scholars now agree, Arians.”[86][87]
In his 1641 treatise, Of Reformation, Milton expressed his dislike for Catholicism and episcopacy, presenting Rome as a modern Babylon, and bishops as Egyptian taskmasters. These analogies conform to Milton’s puritanical preference for Old Testament imagery. He knew at least four commentaries on Genesis: those of John Calvin, Paulus Fagius, David Pareus and Andreus Rivetus.[88]
Through the Interregnum, Milton often presents England, rescued from the trappings of a worldly monarchy, as an elect nation akin to the Old Testament Israel, and shows its leader, Oliver Cromwell, as a latter-day Moses. These views were bound up in Protestant views of the Millennium, which some sects, such as the Fifth Monarchists predicted would arrive in England. Milton, however, would later criticise the “worldly” millenarian views of these and others, and expressed orthodox ideas on the prophecy of the Four Empires.[89]
The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 began a new phase in Milton’s work. In Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes, Milton mourns the end of the godly Commonwealth. The Garden of Eden may allegorically reflect Milton’s view of England’s recent Fall from Grace, while Samson’s blindness and captivity—mirroring Milton’s own lost sight—may be a metaphor for England’s blind acceptance of Charles II as king. Illustrated by Paradise Lost is mortalism, the belief that the soul lies dormant after the body dies.[90]
Despite the Restoration of the monarchy, Milton did not lose his personal faith; Samson shows how the loss of national salvation did not necessarily preclude the salvation of the individual, while Paradise Regained expresses Milton’s continuing belief in the promise of Christian salvation through Jesus Christ.
Though he maintained his personal faith in spite of the defeats suffered by his cause, the Dictionary of National Biography recounted how he had been alienated from the Church of England by Archbishop William Laud, and then moved similarly from the Dissenters by their denunciation of religious tolerance in England.
Milton had come to stand apart from all sects, though apparently finding the Quakers most congenial. He never went to any religious services in his later years. When a servant brought back accounts of sermons from nonconformist meetings, Milton became so sarcastic that the man at last gave up his place.
Writing of the enigmatic and often conflicting views of Milton in the Puritan age, David Daiches wrote convincingly,
“Christian and Humanist, Protestant, patriot and heir of the golden ages of Greece and Rome, he faced what appeared to him to be the birth-pangs of a new and regenerate England with high excitement and idealistic optimism.”[62]
A fair theological summary may be: that John Milton was a Puritan, though his tendency to press further for liberty of conscience, sometimes out of conviction and often out of mere intellectual curiosity, made the great man, at least, a vital if not uncomfortable ally in the broader Puritan movement.[64][79]
Religious toleration [ edit ]
Milton called in the Areopagitica for “the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties” to the conflicting Protestant denominations.[91] According to American historian William Hunter, “Milton argued for disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving broad toleration. Rather than force a man’s conscience, government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel.”[92]
Divorce [ edit ]
Milton wrote The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce in 1643, at the beginning of the English Civil War. In August of that year, he presented his thoughts to the Westminster Assembly of Divines, which had been created by the Long Parliament to bring greater reform to the Church of England. The Assembly convened on 1 July against the will of King Charles I.
Milton’s thinking on divorce caused him considerable trouble with the authorities. An orthodox Presbyterian view of the time was that Milton’s views on divorce constituted a one-man heresy:
The fervently Presbyterian Edwards had included Milton’s divorce tracts in his list in Gangraena of heretical publications that threatened the religious and moral fabric of the nation; Milton responded by mocking him as “shallow Edwards” in the satirical sonnet “On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament”, usually dated to the latter half of 1646.[93]
Even here, though, his originality is qualified: Thomas Gataker had already identified “mutual solace” as a principal goal in marriage.[94] Milton abandoned his campaign to legitimise divorce after 1645, but he expressed support for polygamy in the De Doctrina Christiana, the theological treatise that provides the clearest evidence for his views.[95]
Milton wrote during a period when thoughts about divorce were anything but simplistic; rather, there was active debate among thinkers and intellectuals at the time. However, Milton’s basic approval of divorce within strict parameters set by the biblical witness was typical of many influential Christian intellectuals, particularly the Westminster divines. Milton addressed the Assembly on the matter of divorce in August 1643,[96] at a moment when the Assembly was beginning to form its opinion on the matter. In the Doctrine & Discipline of Divorce, Milton argued that divorce was a private matter, not a legal or ecclesiastical one. Neither the Assembly nor Parliament condemned Milton or his ideas. In fact, when the Westminster Assembly wrote the Westminster Confession of Faith they allowed for divorce (‘Of Marriage and Divorce,’ Chapter 24, Section 5) in cases of infidelity or abandonment. Thus, the Christian community, at least a majority within the ‘Puritan’ sub-set, approved of Milton’s views.
Nevertheless, reaction among Puritans to Milton’s views on divorce was mixed. Herbert Palmer, a member of the Westminster Assembly, condemned Milton in the strongest possible language:
If any plead Conscience … for divorce for other causes than Christ and His Apostles mention; Of which a wicked booke is abroad and uncensured, though deserving to be burnt, whose Author, hath been so impudent as to set his Name to it, and dedicate it to your selves … will you grant a Toleration for all this? The Glasse of God’s Providence Towards His Faithfull Ones, 1644, p. 54.[97]
Palmer expressed his disapproval in a sermon addressed to the Westminster Assembly. The Scottish commissioner Robert Baillie described Palmer’s sermon as one “of the most Scottish and free sermons that ever I heard any where.”[98]
history [edit]
History was particularly important for the political class of the period, and Lewalski considers that Milton “more than most illustrates” a remark of Thomas Hobbes on the weight placed at the time on the classical Latin historical writers Tacitus, Livy, Sallust and Cicero, and their republican attitudes.[99] Milton himself wrote that “Worthy deeds are not often destitute of worthy relaters”, in Book II of his History of Britain. A sense of history mattered greatly to him:[100]
The course of human history, the immediate impact of the civil disorders, and his own traumatic personal life, are all regarded by Milton as typical of the predicament he describes as “the misery that has bin since Adam”.[101]
Legacy and influence [ edit ]
Once Paradise Lost was published, Milton’s stature as epic poet was immediately recognised. He cast a formidable shadow over English poetry in the 18th and 19th centuries; he was often judged equal or superior to all other English poets, including Shakespeare. Very early on, though, he was championed by Whigs, and decried by Tories: with the regicide Edmund Ludlow he was claimed as an early Whig,[102] while the High Tory Anglican minister Luke Milbourne lumped Milton in with other “Agents of Darkness” such as John Knox, George Buchanan, Richard Baxter, Algernon Sidney and John Locke.[103] The political ideas of Milton, Locke, Sidney, and James Harrington strongly influenced the Radical Whigs, whose ideology in turn was central to the American Revolution.[104] Modern scholars of Milton’s life, politics, and work are known as Miltonists: “his work is the subject of a very large amount of academic scholarship”.[105]
In 2008, John Milton Passage, a short passage by Bread Street into St Mary-le-Bow Churchyard in London, was unveiled.[106]
Early reception of the poetry [ edit ]
Title page of a 1752–1761 edition of “The Poetical Works of John Milton with Notes of Various Authors by Thomas Newton” printed by J. & R. Tonson in the Strand
John Dryden, an early enthusiast, in 1677 began the trend of describing Milton as the poet of the sublime.[107] Dryden’s The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man: an Opera (1677) is evidence of an immediate cultural influence. In 1695, Patrick Hume became the first editor of Paradise Lost, providing an extensive apparatus of annotation and commentary, particularly chasing down allusions.[108]
In 1732, the classical scholar Richard Bentley offered a corrected version of Paradise Lost.[109] Bentley was considered presumptuous, and was attacked in the following year by Zachary Pearce. Christopher Ricks judges that, as critic, Bentley was both acute and wrong-headed, and “incorrigibly eccentric”; William Empson also finds Pearce to be more sympathetic to Bentley’s underlying line of thought than is warranted.[110][111]
There was an early, partial translation of Paradise Lost into German by Theodore Haak, and based on that a standard verse translation by Ernest Gottlieb von Berge. A subsequent prose translation by Johann Jakob Bodmer was very popular; it influenced Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. The German-language Milton tradition returned to England in the person of the artist Henry Fuseli.
Many Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century revered and commented on Milton’s poetry and non-poetical works. In addition to John Dryden, among them were Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison, Thomas Newton, and Samuel Johnson. For example, in The Spectator,[112] Joseph Addison wrote extensive notes, annotations, and interpretations of certain passages of Paradise Lost. Jonathan Richardson, senior, and Jonathan Richardson, the younger, co-wrote a book of criticism.[113] In 1749, Thomas Newton published an extensive edition of Milton’s poetical works with annotations provided by himself, Dryden, Pope, Addison, the Richardsons (father and son) and others. Newton’s edition of Milton was a culmination of the honour bestowed upon Milton by early Enlightenment thinkers; it may also have been prompted by Richard Bentley’s infamous edition, described above. Samuel Johnson wrote numerous essays on Paradise Lost, and Milton was included in his Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779–1781). In The Age of Louis XIV, Voltaire said “Milton remains the glory and the wonder (l’admiration) of England.”[114]
Blake [ edit ]
William Blake considered Milton the major English poet. Blake placed Edmund Spenser as Milton’s precursor, and saw himself as Milton’s poetical son.[115] In his Milton: A Poem in Two Books, Blake uses Milton as a character.
Romantic theory [ edit ]
Edmund Burke was a theorist of the sublime, and he regarded Milton’s description of Hell as exemplary of sublimity as an aesthetic concept. For Burke, it was to set alongside mountain-tops, a storm at sea, and infinity.[116] In The Beautiful and the Sublime, he wrote: “No person seems better to have understood the secret of heightening, or of setting terrible things, if I may use the expression, in their strongest light, by the force of a judicious obscurity than Milton.”[117]
The Romantic poets valued his exploration of blank verse, but for the most part rejected his religiosity. William Wordsworth began his sonnet “London, 1802” with “Milton! thou should’st be living at this hour”[118] and modelled The Prelude, his own blank verse epic, on Paradise Lost. John Keats found the yoke of Milton’s style uncongenial;[119] he exclaimed that “Miltonic verse cannot be written but in an artful or rather artist’s humour.”[120] Keats felt that Paradise Lost was a “beautiful and grand curiosity”, but his own unfinished attempt at epic poetry, Hyperion, was unsatisfactory to the author because, amongst other things, it had too many “Miltonic inversions”.[120] In The Madwoman in the Attic, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar note that Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein is, in the view of many critics, “one of the key ‘Romantic’ readings of Paradise Lost.”[121]
Later legacy [ edit ]
The Victorian age witnessed a continuation of Milton’s influence, George Eliot[122] and Thomas Hardy being particularly inspired by Milton’s poetry and biography. Hostile 20th-century criticism by T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound did not reduce Milton’s stature.[123] F. R. Leavis, in The Common Pursuit, responded to the points made by Eliot, in particular the claim that “the study of Milton could be of no help: it was only a hindrance”, by arguing, “As if it were a matter of deciding not to study Milton! The problem, rather, was to escape from an influence that was so difficult to escape from because it was unrecognized, belonging, as it did, to the climate of the habitual and ‘natural’.”[124] Harold Bloom, in The Anxiety of Influence, wrote that “Milton is the central problem in any theory and history of poetic influence in English […]”.[125]
Milton’s Areopagitica is still cited as relevant to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.[126] A quotation from Areopagitica—”A good book is the precious lifeblood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life”—is displayed in many public libraries, including the New York Public Library.
The title of Philip Pullman’s His Dark Materials trilogy is derived from a quotation, “His dark materials to create more worlds”, line 915 of Book II in Paradise Lost. Pullman was concerned to produce a version of Milton’s poem accessible to teenagers,[127] and has spoken of Milton as “our greatest public poet”.[128]
Titles of a number of other well-known literary works are also derived from Milton’s writings. Examples include Thomas Wolfe’s Look Homeward, Angel, Aldous Huxley’s Eyeless in Gaza, Arthur Koestler’s Darkness at Noon, and William Golding’s Darkness Visible.[129]
T. S. Eliot believed that “of no other poet is it so difficult to consider the poetry simply as poetry, without our theological and political dispositions… making unlawful entry”.[130]
Literary legacy [ edit ]
Milton’s use of blank verse, in addition to his stylistic innovations (such as grandiloquence of voice and vision, peculiar diction and phraseology) influenced later poets. At the time, poetic blank verse was considered distinct from its use in verse drama, and Paradise Lost was taken as a unique exemplar.[131] Said Isaac Watts in 1734, “Mr. Milton is esteemed the parent and author of blank verse among us”.[132] “Miltonic verse” might be synonymous for a century with blank verse as poetry, a new poetic terrain independent from both the drama and the heroic couplet.
Lack of rhyme was sometimes taken as Milton’s defining innovation. He himself considered the rhymeless quality of Paradise Lost to be an extension of his own personal liberty:
This neglect then of Rhime … is to be esteem’d an example set, the first in English, of ancient liberty recover’d to heroic Poem from the troublesom and modern bondage of Rimeing.[133]
This pursuit of freedom was largely a reaction against conservative values entrenched within the rigid heroic couplet.[134] Within a dominant culture that stressed elegance and finish, he granted primacy to freedom, breadth and imaginative suggestiveness, eventually developed into the romantic vision of sublime terror. Reaction to Milton’s poetic worldview included, grudgingly, acknowledgement that of poet’s resemblance to classical writers (Greek and Roman poetry being unrhymed). Blank verse came to be a recognised medium for religious works and for translations of the classics. Unrhymed lyrics like Collins’ Ode to Evening (in the meter of Milton’s translation of Horace’s Ode to Pyrrha) were not uncommon after 1740.[135]
A second aspect of Milton’s blank verse was the use of unconventional rhythm:
His blank-verse paragraph, and his audacious and victorious attempt to combine blank and rhymed verse with paragraphic effect in Lycidas, lay down indestructible models and patterns of English verse-rhythm, as distinguished from the narrower and more strait-laced forms of English metre.[136]
Before Milton, “the sense of regular rhythm … had been knocked into the English head so securely that it was part of their nature”.[137] The “Heroick measure”, according to Samuel Johnson, “is pure … when the accent rests upon every second syllable through the whole line … The repetition of this sound or percussion at equal times, is the most complete harmony of which a single verse is capable”.[138] Caesural pauses, most agreed, were best placed at the middle and the end of the line. In order to support this symmetry, lines were most often octo- or deca-syllabic, with no enjambed endings. To this schema Milton introduced modifications, which included hypermetrical syllables (trisyllabic feet), inversion or slighting of stresses, and the shifting of pauses to all parts of the line.[139] Milton deemed these features to be reflective of “the transcendental union of order and freedom”.[140] Admirers remained hesitant to adopt such departures from traditional metrical schemes: “The English … had been writing separate lines for so long that they could not rid themselves of the habit”.[141] Isaac Watts preferred his lines distinct from each other, as did Oliver Goldsmith, Henry Pemberton, and Scott of Amwell, whose general opinion it was that Milton’s frequent omission of the initial unaccented foot was “displeasing to a nice ear”.[142] It was not until the late 18th century that poets (beginning with Gray) began to appreciate “the composition of Milton’s harmony … how he loved to vary his pauses, his measures, and his feet, which gives that enchanting air of freedom and wilderness to his versification”.[143] By the 20th century, American poet and critic John Hollander would go so far as to say that Milton “was able, by plying that most remarkable instrument of English meter … to invent a new mode of image-making in English poetry.”[144]
Milton’s pursuit of liberty extended into his vocabulary as well. It included many Latinate neologisms, as well as obsolete words already dropped from popular usage so completely that their meanings were no longer understood. In 1740, Francis Peck identified some examples of Milton’s “old” words (now popular).[145] The “Miltonian dialect”, as it was called, was emulated by later poets; Pope used the diction of Paradise Lost in his Homer translation, while the lyric poetry of Gray and Collins was frequently criticised for their use of “obsolete words out of Spenser and Milton”.[146] The language of Thomson’s finest poems (e.g. The Seasons, The Castle of Indolence) was self-consciously modelled after the Miltonian dialect, with the same tone and sensibilities as Paradise Lost. Following to Milton, English poetry from Pope to John Keats exhibited a steadily increasing attention to the connotative, the imaginative and poetic, value of words.[147]
Musical settings [ edit ]
Milton’s ode At a solemn Musick was set for choir and orchestra as Blest Pair of Sirens by Hubert Parry (1848–1918), and Milton’s poem On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity was set as a large-scale choral work by Cyril Rootham (1875–1938). Milton also wrote the hymn Let us with a gladsome mind, a versification of Psalm 136. His ‘L’Allegro’ and ‘Il Penseroso’, with additional material, were magnificently set by Handel (1740).
work [edit]
Poetry and drama [ edit ]
Prose [ edit ]
Notes [edit]
^ “When I consider how my light is spent” is one of the best known of Milton’s sonnets. The last three lines (concluding with “They also serve who only stand and wait”) are particularly well known, though rarely in context. The poem may have been written as early as 1652, although most scholars believe it was composed sometime between June and October 1655, when Milton’s blindness was essentially complete.
References[edit]
Alexander Martin
American politician
For others named Alexander Martin, see Alexander Martin (disambiguation)
Alexander Martin (October 17, 1740 – November 2, 1807) was the fourth and seventh governors of North Carolina from 1782 to 1784 and from 1789 to 1792. As a founding father, Martin was a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention, which wrote the United States Constitution.
Early life and education[edit]
Born in 1740 in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, to James Hugh Martin and Jane Hunter of Ireland, Governor Alexander Martin was a North Carolinian politician and delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention. Aside from his role at the Constitutional Convention, Martin witnessed several significant chapters in colonial and early US history, including the Regulatory Rebellion, the Revolutionary War, and the North Carolina ratification debates.[1][2]
Martin received bachelor’s and master’s degrees from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), making him one of the most learned delegates to the Constitutional Convention. After graduating from Princeton, Martin moved to Salisbury, North Carolina. There he worked first as a businessman and later as a lawyer. As his legal career took shape, the Regulator Rebellion began. On September 24, 1770, a mob of angry regulators took over Hillsboro Court. As their demonstration spilled onto the streets of Hillsboro, several attorneys, including Martin, who was probably serving as Justice of the Peace, were flogged and beaten.[2][1]
War of Independence[edit]
By 1774 Martin had become a judge of the Borough of Salisbury. When the Revolutionary War began he became a lieutenant colonel (September 1, 1775) under Colonel Robert Howe and was promoted to colonel (April 10, 1776) over the 2nd North Carolina Regiment when Colonel Howe was promoted to brigadier general. Originally part of the North Carolina state troops, the regiment joined George Washington’s Continental Army on November 28, 1775. In October 1777, at the Battle of Germantown, heavy fog caused Martin and the soldiers under his command to mistake British troops for Continental soldiers. After this debacle, Martin faced a court-martial for cowardice. Although he was not convicted, Martin resigned from the army on November 22, 1777 due to stress and poor health.[3]
In 1778, while still recovering from military service, Martin was elected to the North Carolina State Senate. His tenure in the Senate was eventful: he served as president of the Senate War Committee and became acting governor of North Carolina in 1781 when the acting governor, Thomas Burke, was kidnapped by the Tories. In 1782 the General Assembly elected Martin governor of North Carolina. While the cessation of hostilities had eliminated North Carolina’s greatest threat, the end of the Revolution brought with it many challenges, the most pressing of which was how to deal with Tory and Loyalist property. Martin resisted popular pressure to confiscate and redistribute this property, instead advocating its return to all but the more notorious North Carolina Tories.
After Martin’s term as governor ended, he returned to the General Assembly, where he soon became Speaker of the Senate. In 1787 the General Assembly elected him delegate to the federal constitutional convention in Philadelphia, where the difficulties of the US government under the Articles of Confederation were weighed. Martin arrived in Philadelphia before the convention began and stayed until the end of August, a few weeks before the convention closed. He played little public role in the debates there and was not appointed to any of the Convention’s committees. He supported several minor motions, none of which fundamentally affected the course of the Congress. Because Martin left the federal convention prematurely, he did not sign the constitution.
In 1788, Martin sought election to the Hillsborough constitutional convention, where North Carolina would consider ratifying the constitution. As a supporter of the federal constitution, Martin was helpless in the face of a surge of anti-federal sentiment in North Carolina. Delegates were chosen by county, and Martin, who lived in predominantly anti-Federal Guilford County, was at a disadvantage. His opponent in the election – anti-Federalist Presbyterian minister David Caldwell – won a seat, as did four of his parishioners. Martin was the only delegate to the federal convention who tried and lost for election to a state convention.
Later life[edit]
Sometime in the early 1780s, Martin began a lifelong affair with Elizabeth (Lewis) Strong, widow of Thomas Strong of Virginia. After her husband’s death, Elizabeth had settled near her family in Guilford County. Some time later, she became Governor Martin’s mistress. Their only known child, Alexander Strong Martin, was born in July 1787, and in 1789, according to census records, she and her biological son resided on Martin’s Danbury estate in Rockingham County. Governor Martin recognized Alexander Strong Martin as his son in his will, his only known child.
In 1797 Martin was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society.[4]
Martin’s failure in Guilford County did not reflect a loss of popularity in the General Assembly. He was re-elected governor in 1789 and held the office until 1792, when he reached the limit of his term. During his second term as governor, a permanent seat of government for North Carolina called Raleigh was established in Wake County. In addition, Martin caused the founding of the University of North Carolina in 1789.
Immediately after leaving the governor’s seat, Martin joined the US Senate. His legislative records in the 1790s show that Martin’s political views were nuanced. Although he had supported the ratification of the federal constitution and had always stood for election as a federalist, he repeatedly voted against the federalists in the 1790s. His beliefs appear to have become more federalist amid the XYZ affair, and he voted in favor of all the alien and hate speech laws.
In 1799, after losing the support of the North Carolina Federalists, Martin was elected from the Senate. He returned to the North Carolina General Assembly in 1804 and again became Speaker of the North Carolina Senate in 1805. He died in 1807.
References[edit]
Bibliography[edit]
Charles Beard, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States (Mineola, New York, 2004)
(Mineola, New York, 2004) David F. Burg, A World History of Tax Rebellions (New York, 2004)
(New York, 2004) Carol Berkin, A Brilliant Solution: The Invention of the American Constitution (New York, 2003)
(New York, 2003) Purcell, L. Edward. Who was who in the American Revolution? New York: Facts on File, 1993. ISBN 0-8160-2107-4.
. New York: Facts on File, 1993. ISBN 0-8160-2107-4. Rodenbough, Charles D. (2004). Governor Alexander Martin: Biography of a North Carolina Revolutionary War Statesman. Jefferson, North Carolina.
Sobel, Robert and John Raimo, eds. Biographical Directory of Governors of the United States, 1789–1978. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, 1978. ISBN 0-930466-00-4.
. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, 1978. ISBN 0-930466-00-4. John R. Vile, The Constitutional Convention: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America’s Founding (Santa Barbara, 2005).
(Santa Barbara, 2005). Williams, Max R. “Martin, Alexander”; American National Biography Online, February 2000.
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